Ethics

Ethics is a standard of accountability within a framework used to govern how we act.

Accountability sets the focus through determining to whom or what we are accountable, whether it be God, country, society, neighbors, friends, technology, our pets, ourselves.

Anyone who claims they are accountable to no one are accountable to themselves.

So far as we know, God did not die and leave someone else in charge as God.

God apparently never delegated accountability to others as if they were God, although many act like it.

Two Models of Ethics

There are two major models of ethics very similar in content, differing in content definitions.

Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science

The definitions outlined on this site can give a guide to ethics without necessarily represent structured analysis of the topic.

Related to the definitions here, a more complete definition with a slightly different view may be found at The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. It has a primer on the basics of normative ethical theories grouping them into major virtue, deontological, and teleological categories. The entry delves into virtue normative theories, including good habits of character, the four cardinal virtues, and vices; and the theological virtues. Deontological theories are grouped into four areas: the natural rights theory of John Locke; the foundational rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, to the derivative rights of private property, movement, speech, and religious expression; Kant’s categorical imperative to treat people as an end, and never as a means to an end; and other theories on prima facie duty. Finally, teleological consequentialist theories, with cost-benefit analysis of the end result as the sole determining factor. Utilitarianism, ethical egoism and ethical altruism are considered subsets of this teleological category.

Ethical Egoism is defined as an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action.

Ethical Altruism is defined as an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.

Utilitarianism is defined an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.

Another approach uses a more rich collection of definitions with their consequences and is given below.

Approaches to Ethical Decisions

I. Universal (Golden Rule).

This is also known as the Ethics of Reciprocity: "Do unto others as you would wish them to do unto you".

"Every religion emphasizes human improvement, love, respect for others, sharing other people's suffering. On these lines every religion had more or less the same viewpoint and the same goal." The Dalai Lama
"What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others" Confucius (500 B.C.)
"We should behave to others as we wish others to behave to us" -- Aristotle (325 B.C.)

Some modify the Ethics of Reciprocity to: "Do unto others as they would have done unto them"; in other words, treat people the way they want to be treated, not the way you would want to be treated -- how they want to be treated may be far different than how you want to be treated.

Possible Questions:

How would I feel if I were in the other person's shoes?
What would I want the other person to do or not to do?

II. Teleology.

The means justifies the end

Accountability:

Accountability is to others outside ourselves who will be impacted by our actions

Actions may compromise principles in exchange for improving emotional content for others

Also known as "the utility principle"

Possible Questions:

What are the consequences of my action?

What are the long term effects of my action?

Does my action promote the greatest satisfaction?

Accountability:

Accountability is limited to results

Lies and deceptions may be employed as long as the desired results are achieved

Teleology may result in ethical anomalous dichotomies

Carried to an extreme, Teleology may result in superstition

Motto: It it's going to work out, do it!

III. Deontology ("Universal" principles)

Act according to the proper principle, and be consistent applying it

Stands as a pragmatic categorical imperative

Individual human rights are acknowledged and inviolable

Ethical questions are viewed in terms of black and white absolutes

Possible Questions:

What principle applies in this case?

Can it be applied consistently in this and similar cases?

Can it be considered as a possible universal principle of behavior?

Which course of action best exemplifies the ideal of treating all people as ends in themselves?

Which course of action best exemplifies and fully promotes the ideal of a society of free, responsible people whose ends promote each other rather than conflict with each other?

Accountability:

Accountability is to the "Higher ideal"

Accountability is limited to high concept principle

The focus of Deontology is dedication to duty

Accountability to others is limited solely confining actions to the Deontological framework

Harm may be done to others in name of "higher principle"

Outcomes of actions may end badly, but people will at least "have done the right thing"

At the extreme, self-righteousness may result

Violation of core values may be interpreted as "torture"

Conflicts in priorities may arise involving precedence in dedication to duty for God, country, work, family

Sense of duty may result in blindly following inappropriate leadership

Tends not to entertain any other form of ethics, considering itself to be practical and pragmatic -- the ultimate "right way" to do things

Judges morality by examining the nature of actions and the will of agents rather than goals achieved on the premise that we cannot control the future

Consequences don't matter -- Immanuel Kant

IV. Intuitionalism (Gut feeling)

Act according to your inner sense of what is right or wrong

Possible Questions:

What does my conscience tell me of this action?

Do I feel good about this action?

Accountability:

Accountability is to self only

Feeling good and good emotions are strongly favored over principle or others

Selfish concerns may result in ethical choices of alcoholism and drug abuse

How others feel may be irrelevant

Basis of decisions will usually be difficult to explain to others

Intuitionalism may have a center of narcissism

Intuitionalism may have a center of being a psychopath

Hedonism may result

Ethics boil down to "trust me"

Don't trust logic -- gets down to styles -- seen as manipulative by logical people

Tends to be short sighted and not so concerned with collateral consequences

V. Virtue Theory (Character -- Moral example)

Act as a person of good character and set a good moral example for others to follow

Possible Questions:

What character traits does this action express?

What affect will this action have on my character?

What affect will this action have on the character of other people?

Is this the action of a person whose character I would admire?

Accountability:

Accountability is to self first in the sense of being a light and example to others

Principle features of Virtue Theory are being organized, on time, diligent, being orderly, having honesty and integrity

"Truth" held as a core value to which all subscribe and an ideal to attain

Results are to be an outgrowth of "proper" being

Conscience and morals of individuals may differ considerably to create conflict in the understanding of ethics

Ethical Decision Making

Conflicts may arise in:

Truth versus loyalty
Individual interests versus community
Short term versus long term consequences
Justice versus mercy

There is a two step process of evaluating and choosing alternatives in a manner consistent with ethical principles:

Perceive and eliminate unethical alternatives
Select the best ethical alternative

There are three "C's" of considerations in the ethical decision making process:

Ethical Commitment
Ethical Consciousness
Ethical Competency

I. Ethical Commitment

Strong desire to do the right thing [even though it may impose financial, social or emotional costs]
Lack of commitment leads to compromise of values

II. Ethical Consciousness

Application of moral convictions to daily behavior:
- Does a person "walk the talk?"
- or -- "do what I say, not what I do"
Lack of conscience leads to:
- Failure to perceive the ethical implications
- Professional "tunnel vision"
- Legal conduct that may appear improper or inappropriate to outsiders

III. Ethical Competency

Reasoning and problem-solving skills involve:

Evaluation

Ability to collect and evaluate relevant facts

Creativity

Capacity to develop alternatives means to avoid or minimize ethical problems (ethical imagination)

Prediction

Ability to foresee potential consequences of conduct

Rationalizations

The "Rule of Nobody":

Bureaucrats suspend personal judgment and begin to treat rules as a source of divine guidance. They don't see themselves as being in charge or having any real autonomy: The psychological effect is to relieve them of responsibility for their actions. -- Hannah Arendt

It should be pointed out that in this case, corporations are adopting the worst of the governmental model and implementing it badly.

Be certain that eventually, government will turn around and adopt the worst of the now corrupted corporate model and implement it even worsely.

Justifications:

If it's necessary, it's ethical
The false necessity trap
If it's legal and permissible, it's proper
If it's barely legal, we can do it as long as we don't get caught publicly
I was just doing it for you
I'm just fighting fire with fire

Vengeance is mine, sayeth the victim.

It doesn't hurt anyone... that much
Everyone's doing it
But my boss told me to do it! [The Nuremburg Defense]
It's OK if I don't gain personally
It's OK if it benefits our leader / guru because he is in place of God
I've got it coming
I can still be objective

Descent into cults

Cults are an outgrowth of excessive devotion to an individual or group either as part of a religion, government, academia, corporation or other business, support group wherein distorted perception raises the importance of the individual or group to an excessively prominent position within their lives without commensurate value but with extreme dedication of personal resources to the individual or group.

Typically, a prospective cult participant is looking for something: Resolution to problems, opportunities for advancement or success, or simply, "The Truth". The prospective cult participant may either on a quest or simply a victim of opportunistic encounter. The cult is viewed an important solution and resource. The leadership is trusted to be ethical and concerned about the newly converted member, even though the actual pragmatic objective data contraindicates the notion -- usually ignored out of hand by the pawn, patsy or patron as the case might be.

It generally does not matter what the ethical basis of the person might be: Universal, Teleological, Deontological, Intuitionalistic, or Virtue driven, the cult soon displaces the original basis with it's own, which, under the covers, is Teleological: The end justifies the means -- the end meaning the honor and prosperity of the leadership / guru of the cult. This is always hidden from the prospective member.

After the initial flush of faith, the newly recruited cult member settles into the busywork of being a drone -- providing what is perceived to be the good of the whole, but is generally good for no one except those in the power structure. After a time, cognitive dissonance sets in and the more seasoned cult member begins to notice the subtle divergence from his or her personal belief system and the beliefs and practices of the group. This is excused and rationalized for a time, but those who retain a modicum of rationality recognizes over time that there is something really wrong. Secrets may come out. Hypocrisy may be discovered. Generally, the most important aspect of realization lies within the personal treatment of the cult victim: The victim is dehumanized, trivialized and generally treated lower than dirt, no matter what qualifications and previous achievements may be to the person's credit. The personality is subsumed and all allegiance is given over to the individual / group / leader / guru. There is usually a threshold beyond which the person feels they can no longer function in the venue and eventually, usually reluctantly, they take an exit. Often, the exit is accompanied by real personal risk -- another incentive for staying with the group. Nevertheless, when the threshold is passed, there has been too much sacrifice and too little reward.

Even when a cult member finally "sees the light" there is often hesitation because of the extreme investment in the venue. Relationships have been formed, patterns have been established, habits are ingrained. Compromise is often employed as a method of procrastination to mitigate the loss. People often accept unacceptable environments because of both a fear of change and a fear of loss. They are in the similar situation of birds nesting at the airport: The noise is harmful, but soon it is tolerated and then not noticed as both a tolerance and toleration is engaged as adaptation proceeds. Those who leave a cult feel empty from the loss and it usually takes a long time to reassimilate into the norms of the society around them. Often, the return to a modicum of normalcy is never achieved because of the adoption of a mixture of conflicting perspectives is lived as though both are real and viable. Confusion marks the exbeliever who must reconcile belief systems which do not and have never worked with the realities of the necessities of living. Adopting a consistent ethics may be beyond the reach of such individuals or it may take a long time to realize something reasonable to set a pattern of successful living without the constant demands of a cult, not unlike a nest of baby birds wanting to be fed with a constant: "Feed me, feed me," as the leadership continues a relentless pursuit to extract every last resource from its victims with some of the least reason in the history of the world.

Maturity of the individual is paramount to surmount the appeal of the cult. A great deal of deception, smoke and mirrors are employed to make the cult and its leadership: Nothing is exactly what it seems to be. It is useful to get both an overview and behind the scene details before committing to a cult. Better yet, the question might be asked, "Could I do without this and avoid all the problems before even engaging with this group?". Every member of every cult believes that they have discovered the ultimate truth. It is a lie. It is worth saving oneself the trouble.

Generally the focus of a cult is a narcissist or psychopath and the ultimate cost is far too high to consider joining.

Questions to ask:

What is the basis of the ethics?
How closely does the leadership adhere to their own model?
What sort of anomalies exist between concept and reality?
What real benefit with this group be to me?
What is the real cost to me going to be?
What is the real cost going to be to others?

Two Methods of Ethical Decision Making

Two major methods of determining ethical decision making can be employed.

Those wishing to determine how to make ethical decisions may choose from either of the below:

The Ten Step Method of Decision Making
Model of Trust [given below]

Model of Trust

The Trust Model of ethics is not that dissimilar to the Think, Plan, Act (TPA) model and should be thought of as the Opportunity Identification phase of a project.

The Trust Model of ethics:

Take time to gather facts
Review principles and guidelines
Understand existing obligations
Select possible alternatives and evaluate
Test decision by "explaining it to stakeholders"

I. Take time to gather facts

Identify the relevant facts
- Interview people with knowledge of facts and circumstances
- Gather existing data
- Identify relevant history

II. Review principles and guidelines

First determine the ethics issues involved
Review existing policy, procedures or precedence
Apply ethical principles and guidelines to evaluate the problem

III. Understand existing obligations

Obligations inherent in:
- Specific job or assignment
- Role and relationship (management / co-workers employees / customers)
- Product or service
- Public good -- public trust [a role increasingly important to corporations]

IV. Select possible alternatives and evaluate

Identify alternatives
- Use "ethical imagination" in seeking solutions [innovation]
- Consider best and worst case scenarios
- Foresee the consequences of actions
Apply the two step:
1. Perceive and eliminate unethical alternatives
2. Select the "best" ethical alternative

V. Test decision by "explaining it to stakeholders"

Front page or press test [what would it look like in major media?]
Imagine explaining your decision to the public
Anticipate how it would be received
If you can't explain it and feel comfortable, consider another option

Before adopting the ethical standard or solution, go to the stakeholders and attempt to find a consensus -- or at least attain a viable preponderance of agreement, if possible.

Review with peers and stakeholders to formulate an ethical solution generally produces a better product / result.

Final Note

References:

Ethics, the Heart of Leadership, edited by Joanne B. Ciulla. Westport, Conneticut, London: Praeger Publisers, 2004.

A 21st Century Ethical Tool Box, by Anthony Weston. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

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